Mauryas to Yadavas | The Muslim Interlude | The Marathas | The Peshwas | The British | Resistance to British Rule |  Freedom Movement | Samyukta Maharashtra

It was once thought that prehistoric man did not exist in Maharashtra, but recent research has established the presence of man in this region in the Stone Age. Attempts have also been made to reconstruct the climatic sequence and correlate it with cultural phases. As a result, we now have a fair idea of the life of prehistoric man in Maharashtra.

The antiquity of this region can be traced to approximately the 3rd century BC, which is when the Maharastri language, a Prakrit corruption of Sanskrit from which the term 'Maharashtra' is derived, was then in use. Marathi, which evolved from Maharastri-Prakrit, has been the lingua franca of the people of this area from the 10th century onwards. And, in the course of time, the term 'Maharashtra' was used to describe a region which consisted of Aparanta, Vidarbha, Mulak, Ashmak and Kuntal. The tribal communities of Nags, Munds and Bhils inhabited this area, also known as Dandakaranya, in ancient times. They were joined by the Aryas, the Shakas and the Huns, who came from the North, as well as by foreigners, who arrived by sea. The Dravidians from the South colonised the land, joining a group which collectively became known as 'Marathas'. 

The Mauryan empire expanded southwards to include the Konkan region of Maharashtra. The policies of the rulers led to flourishing trade and the development of Buddhist learning in that region. With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahanas.

The first well-known rulers of Maharashtra were the Satavahanas (c.230 BC to AD 225), with Pratishthana (Paithan) as their capital. The dynasty, founded by Simmuk Satavahan, represents a significant phase in the political, cultural and social history of Maharashtra. Hala, the seventh ruler of the Satavahanas, composed the famous Gatha-Saptashati, a Maharastri-Prakrit kavya (poem). The Satavahanas inaugurated the Shalivahana Shaka of the Hindus. The empire crumbled because of internal feuds among its vassals.

The Vakatakas (AD 250 to 525) brought the Vidarbha region under their rule and, during that period, Maharashtra witnessed an overall development in the fields of learning, the arts and religion with their munificent patronage. The best-known of the Ajanta caves - 16, 17, and 19 - belong to the Vakataka period. Fresco painting reached its high-level mark during this time.

After the Vakatakas, there was a brief interlude when the Kalachuri dynasty ruled over parts of this region in the 6th century, from the dynastic capital at Mahishmati.

The next important dynasty of Maharashtra was that of the Chalukyas, from AD 550-760 and then again from AD 973-1180. Jai Sinha, the founder of the dynasty, made Badami (Bijapur District, Karnataka) his capital. Pulakesin II, the master of three Maharashtras and the greatest ruler of the Chalukyas, ruled from Nasik. The Chalukyas were devout Hindus, who extensively sponsored temple construction.

Dantidurga, the chief of the Rashtrakutas, defeated the Chalukyas by AD 753 and established his dynasty with Manyakheta (Karnataka) as his capital. Rashtrakuta rule came to an end in AD 973, when Tailap Chalukya of the Kalyani branch wrested power and restored Chalukyan supremacy for the second time. The famous Kailash cave-temple (Ellora, in Aurangabad district) was built under the patronage of the Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna I. The Chalukyas of Kalyani continued to rule parts of Maharashtra up to AD 1189, when the Yadavas of Deogiri took over; their supremacy lasted till AD 1310. The Kadambas of Goa and the Shilaharas of South and North Konkan and Kolhapur served as vassals of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, who were finally overthrown by the Yadavas.

The Yadavas extended their authority over a large territory, practised religious tolerance, patronised the Marathi language - which received the status of a court-language - and included in their clan the great saint-poet Dnyaneshwar - the pioneer of the bhakti cult in Maharashtra. In the 9th century, the Yadavas had their capital at Chandor (Nasik district); this was later transferred to Deogiri by Bhillam c.AD 1187.

Ala-ud-din Khalji was the first Muslim sultan of the North who penetrated the Deccan in AD 1296, defeated the Yadavas and impoverished the dynasty by carrying away a huge booty. Malik Kafur, his lieutenant, completed his missions and, by 1310, Yadava rule came to an end.

Muhammad Tughluq (1324-1350), who extended his authority up to Madurai in the South, emulated Ala-ud-din Khalji’s example. However, his experiment of transferring his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad was a failure. The fall of the Tughluqs gave rise to a new Muslim power in the Deccan under the leadership of Sultan Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahamani in 1347, and the Bahamani dynasty lasted nearly 150 years. Deogiri, or Daulatabad, was for a while the capital of the Bahamanis. By the 16th century, the Bahamani kingdom was parcelled out into five independent regions - Qutb Shah (Golkonda), Nizam Shah (Admednagar), Imad Shah (Varhad), Adil Shah (Bijapur) and Barid Shah (Bidar), which included parts of Maharashtra. In order to preserve political authority, these Deccani Muslim rulers had to employ the local people in civil, military and diplomatic services. The Mughals annexed the provinces by the end of the 17th century.

The Marathas dominated the political scene in Maharashtra from the middle of the 17th century to the early 19th century. Although for historical purposes the term 'Maratha' is used in a comprehensive sense to include all Marathi speaking people, in actual fact the word signifies the distinct community which has dominated the political scene of Maharashtra since medieval times. 

Who were these Marathas? The origin of the Marathi-speaking community of Maharashtra cannot be identified with certainty. Whether the term itself is derived from Maharashtra or whether the land assumes the name from its dwellers is difficult to say. Although Risley's theory of the Scytho-Dravindian origin of the Marathas is now discarded, it cannot be denied that there exists a great admixture of aboriginal tribal elements in the Marathas, of all grades. Several Maratha clans are totemic: Khandoba (sword father) and Bhavani (mother goddess), the two chief deities of the Marathas, are aboriginal in character.

References to the Marathas and their country are found in accounts by the Arab geographer, Al Biruni (1030 AD), Friar Jordanus (c.1326) and Ibn Batuta (1340), the African traveller. The Marathas came into political prominence only in the 17th century under Shivaji. Historians such as Grant Duff attribute their rise to fortuitous circumstances - "like a conflagration in the forests of Sahyadri mountains" - while Justice Ranade ascribes it to genuine efforts made by Maratha chiefs serving under the Deccani sultans.

Several Maratha chiefs - such as the Bhonsales, Jadhavs, Nimbalkars, Mores, Manes, Ghatges, Dafleys, Sawants, Shirkes, Mahadiks and the Mohites - serving under the Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar and Adil Shah of Bijapur received excellent training in arms and administration. Maloji Bhonsale (c.1552-1606) the patil (headman), joined Nizam Shah with a small band of cavalry. His son, Shahaji (1599-1664) served under Nizam Shah and Adil Shah, and came to prominence as a leading Maratha.

Under Shahu, the Bhat family of Shrivardhan (Raigad) came to prominence and the Chitpavan Brahman Balaji Vishwanath Bhat (1713-1720), who had helped Shahu to strengthen his position, became his Peshwa (prime minister) and brought in the sanads (deeds) of Swaraj, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the Mughals. His son, Peshwa Bajirao I (1720-1740), attempted to break the narrow limits of Maharashtra by adopting a forward policy and building Maratha power on the ruins of the Mughal empire. He installed the Maratha sardars in the North, who later developed the Maratha confederacy. Gujarat, Malwa, Bundelkhand came under Maratha control and a new band of sardars such as Shinde, Holkar, Gaikwad and Pawar came to prominence.

Historians regard Bajirao I the founder of Greater Maharashtra, because it was under his reign that Maharashtra became the centre of Indian politics. During his short career, he established Marathi supremacy in the Deccan and political hegemony in the North. His son, Balaji (1740-1761) succeeded him and expanded the Maratha borders to Attack (Punjab). Shahu died in 1749 and his adopted son Ramraja, being incompetent, remained a titular Chhatrapati. The Peshwas thus became the de facto rulers of Maharashtra, and Pune became the centre of Maratha politics. The tragic disaster of the Marathas at Panipat (1761) at the hands of the Afghan ruler, Abdali, temporarily weakened their power but did not destroy it. Madhavrao I (1761-1772), a noble Peshwa, restored Maratha prestige by defeating the enemies and introducing efficient administration. His premature death was a great destabiliser of Maratha power. Grant Duff says, "The plains of Panipat were not more fatal to the Maratha empire than the early end of this excellent prince."

The domestic feuds that ensued led to the murder of the next Peshwa leader, Narayanrao (1773), whose posthumous child, Madhavrao II (1773-1795), managed the affairs of state with the help of the Barbhai council, of which Nana Phadnis and Mahadji Shinde were prominent members. Power thus shifted from the Peshwas to the Karbharis (managers). The English gradually began to intrude into Maratha territory. They were humbled in 1781, but the last Peshwa, Bajirao II (1795-1818) succumbed, and surrendered power in 1818. Mountstuart Elphinstone, the liquidator of Maratha power, then created a Maratha state at Satara by installing Pratap Singh (1793-1847), a descendant of Shahu, on the throne as Raja to win the sympathies of the Marathas. He was deposed in 1839, and his brother Shahaji became Raja. The state lapsed to the English in 1849. Thus the hegemony of the Marathas-who had dominated the political scene of Indian history for over two centuries-came to an end.

The contribution of the Marathas to Indian history can be summed up in the words of Jadunath Sarkar, who says, "The Marathas have an historic advantage of unique importance in India today. Their ancestors had faced death in a hundred battle fields, had led armies and debated in the chamber of diplomacy; had managed the finances of kingdoms and grappled with the problems of empire; they had helped to make Indian history in the immediate and not forgotten past. The memory of these things is a priceless asset to their race."

In the 17th century, the British East India Company struggled to secure commercial monopoly on the West coast and regarded the growing power of Shivaji as a potential danger. Shivaji shrewdly guessed of British intentions of territorial acquisition under the guise of trade and commerce. But the Peshwas did not anticipate the opportunist British mentality; Peshwa Nanasahab invited them to crush the Angres of Kolaba in 1754. The Maratha thus dug their own grave. In the Madras Military consultations of April 17, 1770, it was recorded that, "It has always been allowed and that too with reason, that nothing can reduce the Maratha power but dissension among themselves, and it is fortunate for the other powers in Hindustan that the Maratha chiefs were always ready to take every advantage of each other."

The most successful British statesman in routing out Maratha power was Mountstuart Elphinstone, who occupied the office of Resident (Pune) in 1811. He slowly worked for the fall of the Marathas and when the third and final war broke out with them in 1817, Bajirao II finally submitted to the British on June 3, 1818, and the glory of the Maratha power vanished. Elphinstone then became the Commissioner of the territories conquered from the Peshwas in 1819 and later the Governor of Bombay. He laid the foundation of British administration in Maharashtra without introducing much innovation, completed the work of settlement, initiated an educational policy, and founded Sanskrit College (which later became Deccan College) with the Dakshina funds of the Peshwas.

The Marathas were never reconciled to the British Raj, and occasionally challenged its officers. In 1826, the Ramoshis of Pune district, under the leadership of Umaji Naik, revolted against the British, who subsequently compromised with them. The Ramoshis were absolved of their crimes, absorbed in government service and granted lands in inam. They revolted again. Umaji Naik was captured. Raghu Bhangra of Nasik, Ramji of Nagar and his associate, Govindrao Khare, the killedar of Ratnagiri, also resisted British rule. The Kolis of Pune and Nagar districts also organised themselves against the British. It is really surprising that these unlettered, unequipped residents of the hills had the courage to challenge the British long before intellectuals could start the freedom movement.

In the revolt of 1857, Maharashtra was not an active participant, though leaders such as Tatya Tope and Maharani Laxmibai of Jhansi were Maharashtrians.

In 1857, peasants of some parts of Pune, Satara and Nagar districts revolted against oppressive policies supported by the British, in the Deccan Riots. Vasudeo Balwant Phadke launched his violent compaign against British rule in 1879, aiming to establish an Indian republic by driving them out. However, his armed resistance failed and he was arrested and deported to Aden, where he passed away in 1883. Resentment against the British rule continued unabated and the Chaphekar brothers murdered Mr Rand and Lt Ayerst on Jubilee Night on June 22, 1897, in Pune. In his book, India of Yester Years, published in 1899, GW Stevens explains Maratha resistance to British rule: "Other provinces of India were ceded to us or conquered from alien lords, the Marathas lost all in war, ... The Marathas have never forgotten how high they were less than a hundred years ago, and who it was that brought them low. They lost more than others did and they feel the loss more. For others who were a change of masters; them we brought down from masters to slaves.... His empire, his nationality, his religion, his honour, his beautiful language - we have taken away his all."

The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Maharashtra (Mumbai) in 1885. Justice Ranade provided a theoretical base for the national movement by advocating liberalism and starting several institutions for moulding public opinion on social, economic and political problems. Dadabhoy Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta and Dinshaw Wachha, prominent Parsis of Mumbai, were leaders of the Indian National Congress. Two outstanding national leaders of Maharashtra between 1890-1920 were Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) and Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915). Tilak drew the masses into national politics through his community festivals in praise of Shivaji and Ganesh. He condemned the moderates' policy of 'mendicancy' and declared that Swaraj was his birthright. He was called the "father of political unrest in India." Gokhale, the true disciple of Justice Ranade, and essentially a leader of the elite adopted the policy of conciliation and compromise. 

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the founder of the Abhinav Bharat Society, a terrorist organisation, became the idol of the youth. Mahatma Gandhi, who regarded Gokhale as his guru, and considered Maharashtra the beehive of constructive workers, received support from Maharashtra in his various movements and programmes. It was during this period that the non-Brahman element, under leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe, was brought within the fold of the Congress, mainly through the persuasive efforts of Kakasaheb Gadgil. 

The ultimatum to the British to "Quit India" was given in Mumbai, and culminated in the transfer of power and the independence of India in 1947. Raosaheb and Achutrao Patwardhan, Nanasaheb Gore, SM Joshi, Yeshwantrao Chavan, Vasantdada Patil and several others played a prominent role in this struggle. BG Kher was the first Chief Minister of the tri-lingual Bombay Presidency.

The Indian National Congress was pledged to linguistic states, but the States Re-organisation Committee recommended a bi-lingual state for Maharashtra-Gujarat, with Mumbai as its capital. Its inauguration on November 1, 1956, caused a great political stir and, under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe, an all-party meeting was held in Pune and Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was founded on February 6, 1956. In the second general election the Samiti defeated the stalwarts of Congress by securing 101 seats out of 133, including 12 from Mumbai. The Congress could form a government only with the support of Gujarat, Marathwada and Vidarbha. Yeshwantrao Chavan became the first Chief Minister of the bi-lingual Bombay State. 

SM Joshi, SA Dange, NG Gore and PK Atre fought relentlessly for Samyukta Maharashtra, even at the cost of sacrificing the lives of several people and finally succeeded in convincing Congress leaders that Maharashtra should form a separate state. The resignation of CD Deshmukh, the then Finance Minister of the Nehru Cabinet, had its salutary effect, and on May 1, 1960, the state of Maharashtra, which included western Maharashtra, Vidarbha and Marathwada was born with the blessings of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. 

Thus, in 1960 the historical process of formation of this Marathi State from Mo-ho-lo-cha to Maharashtra was completed. The new Maharashtra conforms to the image recorded by Hiun Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, more than 1,300 years ago.